Warrior Queens: Mandukhai the Wise

Mongolian Spearhead, Serai, Golden Horde, XIII-XIV AD. Steel. https://truehistoryshop.com/shop/spear-mongolian-serai-golden-horde-xiii-xiv-ad/.

This spearhead was a staple for Mongolian footmen and was used to fight at close range, when fighting within close range which would make reflex bows useless. While the handle of the spear is missing, it is easy to see where it would attach. Speer handles were often made of wood, horn, or bone and were often covered with scraps of animal hide for comfort and a better grip. This type of spear was not used by Queen Mandukhai as she often stood back from the front lines of battle and fired on enemies with her bow, ensuring that both she and the Dayan Khan were safe. The upper spearhead has a small hooked portion after the main point, which was often used for picking things up, grabbing enemies’ armor to throw them off their stead, or “scooping” enemies’ entrails out after stabbing them with the spear.3 The bottom spearhead was used more for close-quarters battle and often had a smaller handle to accommodate stabbing rather than throwing or hooking. (Leo Akers, 2025)

Lamellar Armor, metal alloy, silk undergarments. Mongolian or Turkish. 15th - 16th century. https://www.mongolianz.com/post/2023/05/11/mongolian-armor-unveiling-the-timeless-power-and-beaut y/ 

As the Mongols evolved and intermingled with different cultures, they developed different styles of armor such as plate armor, scale armor, and lamellar armor. “Lamellar armor, characterized by interlocking plates, provided exceptional flexibility and protection. These plates were meticulously crafted from materials such as iron, leather, or bone, then laced together using strong cords. This type of armor was favored by horse-mounted warriors due to its lightweight nature and ability to withstand the rigors of swift maneuvers on the battlefield.” This armor was significantly heavier than the leather armor but was more robust against gunpowder attacks, swords, close-range weaponry, and weather. The lamellar armor came from Tibetan practices and was absorbed by the Mongols soon before Queen Mandukhai came into power. Learning the interlocking metalworking skills needed for this type of armor came about during the era of the Khanates, when the Mongol Empire was spread out into individual clans and diluted the strong Mongol Khan bloodline by intermingling with the locals. However, once the Mongols were reunited and the Chinese-Mongol Yuan dynasty arose, the Empire had access to these new artisanal techniques. 

While this armor style came slightly after Queen Mandukhai’s height of battle, it is important to note that this was most likely what her Tibetan enemies were wearing before she conquered them and assimilated their Khanate into the empire. They were expert metal workers and took the Mongolian crafting techniques and heightened their use, appearance, and strength. The Lamellar armor was often favored by horsemen and granted them greater protection and freedom of movement than the original leather armor would. It was thanks to Lamellar armor that the Mongolian tradition of fighting from horseback was able to persist so long after the Empire’s eventual collapse. (Leo Akers, 2025)

Mongolian Composite Recurve Bow. Wood, sinew, and horn. https://factsanddetails.com/asian/cat65/sub423/item2696.html. Weapon accoutrements: Archer's Ring, 17th century. Nephrite H. 1 5/8 in. (4.1 cm)W. 1 3/16 in. (3 cm). Stone. Rogers Fund, 1952. Object Number: 52.119.6 https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/451118.  Weapon accoutrements: A Mongolian saddle from China dating to between c. 1271–1368 CE, when China was ruled by the Yuan Dynasty. From the Inner Mongolia Museum in Hohhot, China https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11245/mongolian-saddle/ 

Despite carrying improved Persian and Chinese hand-to-hand combat weapons the Mongols heavily relied on bow and arrow to become successful fighters. The Mongolian bow had a range of 250 meters (273 yards) which was twice the range of English long bows. However, range was not the only advantage granted by the composite recurve bow; the Mongols “could fire up to six arrows a minute, and utilized several arrow and arrowhead designs, including long-range ones, short-range ones, and ones that could pierce armor.” This type of bow, a recurve, was bent “backwards” as opposed to the European bow, which simply had one wooden round curve without the bend in the middle. When unstrung, this bow would settle into a crescent shape rather than straightening out like traditional bows. This extra curve gave the Mongols unmatched force when it came to firing arrows and a draw weight of 30 to 160 pounds. On top of the impressive draw weight, the Mongols developed a specific Mongolian arching style where the archer drew the arrow back with their thumb, pressing the string against the outside of their ring finger, which allowed for nearly perfect accuracy even when riding up to 30 miles per hour on horseback. This draw style necessitated the use of protective thumb rings (see below) to ensure the thumb was not ripped off from the force of the bow. 

Queen Mandukhai would have used a bow like this as she often stayed back and fired on the enemy from a distance. This was to keep herself and the heir to the throne safe. She most likely had a smaller bow with a lighter draw weight for distance and accuracy rather than deadly piercing force. Dayan Khan was strapped to the back of her saddle (see below) and supported by her quiver to ensure the young boy did not fall off during the long and dangerous rides throughout the Steppes. Recurve compound bows are the weapon most commonly associated with the Mongols and showcase their advancements within ranged weaponry. A bow like this, with the accompanying ring, showcases the deep and rich history the Mongols had with ranged weapons and their consistent drive to improve their techniques to hone in on accuracy, power, and ease of use. (Leo Akers, 2025)

Mongolian Cavalry Armor. Leather, silk, bronze, steel. https://termokiss.wordpress.com/2019/12/09/overview-mongol-empire/ 

Most Mongolian soldiers wore leather armor as it was lighter and more flexible than the European-favored chainmail. Mongol cavalrymen often carried small leather or wooden shields to protect their faces. These shields were sometimes inlaid with bronze or steel to showcase the importance or heritage of the soldier using it. Under the leather tunic, they wore a loose robe of woven silk that helped to blunt the impact of arrows or daggers. Mongolian boots were often lined with metal plates that protected their calves and feet to ensure they could properly steer their horses. It was important for Mongolian armor to be lightweight so as not to weigh down their horses and to ensure ease of movement in battle. (Leo Akers, 2025)